Wildlife trade refers to the exchange of products derived from non-domesticated or usually extracted from their natural environment or raised under controlled conditions. It can involve the trade of living or dead individuals, tissues such as skins, bones or meat, or other products. Legal wildlife trade is regulated by the United Nations' Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), which currently has 184 member countries called Parties.[CITES 2013. Member countries. CITES Secretariat, Geneva.] Illegal wildlife trade is widespread and constitutes one of the major illegal economic activities, comparable to the Black market of Drug trafficking and Arms trafficking.
Wildlife trade is a serious conservation problem, has a negative effect on the viability of many wildlife populations and is one of the major threats to the survival of vertebrate species.
The illegal wildlife trade has been linked to the
Zoonosis and spread of new infectious diseases in humans, including
.
Global initiatives like the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15 have a target to end the illegal supply of wildlife.
Terminology
Wildlife use is a general term for all uses of wildlife products, including ritual or religious uses, consumption of
bushmeat and different forms of trade. Wildlife use is usually associated with
hunting or
poaching. Wildlife trade can be differentiated in legal and illegal trade, and both can have domestic (local or national) or international markets, but they might be often related to each other.
Ineffective monitoring of international wildlife trade
The volume of international trade in
wildlife commodities is immense and continues to rise. According to an analysis on the 2012 Harmonized System customs statistics, global import of wildlife products amounted to US$187 billion, of which fisheries commodities accounted for $113 billion; plants and forestry products for $71 billion; non-fishery animal for $3 billion including live animals, parts and derivatives.
However, the global trade of wildlife commodities is ineffectively monitored and accounted for due to the constraint of the HS Code System used by the customs worldwide. The majority of international imports of wildlife are only recorded in extremely basic and general categories, such as 'plant' or 'animal products', with no further taxonomic detail. It is estimated that nearly 50% of the global import of plant and 70% of animal products are imported as general categories, with an exception for fisheries (ca. 5%), thanks to various multilateral fishery management agreements that requires taxon-specific fish catch reporting.[
]
Many jurisdictions rely on the declared HS Code of the consignments for detection and prosecution of illegal wildlife import. The lack of specificity of HS Code precludes effective monitoring and traceability of global wildlife trade. There is an increasing call for a reform of the HS Code to strengthen monitoring and enforcement of global wildlife trade.
Reasons for concern
Different forms of wildlife trade or use (utilization, hunting, trapping, collection or over-exploitation) are the second major threat to endangered
mammals and it also ranks among the first ten threats to
birds,
amphibians and
cycads.
[
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Wildlife trade threatens the local ecosystem, and puts all species under additional pressure at a time when they are facing threats such as over-fishing, pollution, dredging, deforestation and other forms of habitat destruction.[
]
According to the United Nations, World Health Organization and World Wildlife Foundation, the Coronavirus disease 2019 is linked to the destruction of nature, especially to deforestation, habitat loss in general and wildlife trade. The head of the UN convention on biological diversity stated: "We have seen many diseases emerge over the years, such as Zika, Aids, Sars and Ebola, and they all originated from animal populations under conditions of severe environmental pressures."
Zoonoses
Outbreaks of Zoonosis including COVID-19, H5N1 avian flu, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and monkeypox have been traced to live wildlife markets where the potential for zoonotic transmission is greatly increased.[ It is thought that the market environment provided optimal conditions for the coronaviruses of zoonotic origin that caused both outbreaks to mutate and subsequently spread to humans.][
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Nonetheless, the COVID-19 pandemic declaration – and the subsequent quarantines – led to increased online trade in wildlife.[ The isolation of quarantine itself immediately became the selling point, with pets as companions and distractions.][
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Survival rate of species during transport
In some instances, such as the sale of chameleons from Madagascar, organisms are transported by boat or via the air to consumers. The survival rate of these is extremely poor (only 1% survival rate).[ This is undoubtedly caused by the illegal nature; vendors rather not risk that the chameleons were to be discovered and so do not ship them in plain view. Due to the very low survival rate, it also means that far higher amounts of organisms (in this case chameleons) are taken away from the ecosystem, to make up for the losses.
]
Consequences for indigenous peoples
In many instances, tribal people have become the victims of the fallout from poaching.
Illegal wildlife trade
Interpol has estimated the extent of the illegal wildlife trade between $10 billion and $20 billion per year. While the trade is a global one, with routes extending to every continent, conservationists say the problem is most acute in Southeast Asia.[
]
There, trade linkages to key markets in China, the United States, and the European Union; lax law enforcement; weak border controls; and the perception of high profit and low risk contribute to large-scale commercial wildlife trafficking.
Asia
Notable trade hubs of the wildlife trade include Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok, which offers smugglers direct jet service to Europe, the Middle East, North America and Africa.
Despite international and local laws designed to crack down on the trade, live animals and animal parts, often those of endangered or threatened species, are sold in open-air markets throughout Asia.
India
Africa
Many African species are traded both within the country of origin and internationally.
Morocco has been identified as a transit country for wildlife moving from Africa to Europe due to its porous borders with Spain. Wildlife is present in the markets as photo props, sold for decoration, used in medicinal practices, sold as pets and used to decorate shops. Large numbers of reptiles are sold in the markets, especially spur-thighed tortoises. Although leopards have most likely been extirpated from Morocco, their skins can regularly be seen sold openly as medicinal products or decoration in the markets.
South America
Although the volume of animals traded may be greater in Southeast Asia, animal trade in Latin America is widespread as well.
In open air Amazon markets in Iquitos and Manaus, a variety of rainforest animals are sold openly as meat, such as , Peccary, turtles, turtle eggs, walking catfish, etc. In addition, many species are sold as pets.
With the human population increasing, such practices have a serious impact on the future prospects for many threatened species. A report from WWF and the Zoological Society of London in 2024 found that the wildlife populations in Latin America and the Caribbean, including the Amazon, have declined by an average of 94% over the past 48 years. This was the largest decline seen in a region of the world.[ It was caused by multiple factors including wildlife trafficking, combined with deforestation and other pressures.
]
In Venezuela more than 400 animal species are involved in subsistence hunting, domestic and international (illegal) trade. These activities are widespread and might overlap in many regions, although they are driven by different markets and target different species.[
]
In Brazil, the wildlife trade has grown over the years, as it is one of the most biodiverse areas in the world. Mammals and amphibians are among the highest traded animals. In recent studies, non-native species of amphibians and mammals were identified in Brazil, with frogs and rodents, respectively, posing the greatest invasion risks.
Online
Through both deep web (password protected, encrypted) and dark web (special portal browsers) markets, participants can trade and transact illegal substances, including wildlife. However the amount of activity is still negligible compared to the amount on the open or surface web. As stated in an examination of search engine key words relating to wildlife trade in an article published by Conservation Biology, "This negligible level of activity related to the illegal trade of wildlife on the dark web relative to the open and increasing trade on the surface web may indicate a lack of successful enforcement against illegal wildlife trade on the surface web."
A study conducted by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (Ifaw) in 2018 revealed online sales of endangered wildlife (on the list of the global Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species) was pervasive across Europe. Ivory accounted for almost 20 percent of the items offered.
Organizations addressing illegal wildlife trade
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ASEAN Wildlife Enforcement Network
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Basel Institute on Governance
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Clark R. Bavin National Fish and Wildlife Forensic Laboratory
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Four Paws
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FREELAND Foundation
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International Fund for Animal Welfare
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International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
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Monitor Conservation Research Society (Monitor)
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South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)
[ South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN)]
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Species Survival Network
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TRAFFIC, the wildlife trade monitoring network
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United for Wildlife
[ United for Wildlife]
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United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
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United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 15
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Wildlife Alliance
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World Wildlife Fund for Nature
Legal wildlife trade
Legal trade of wildlife has occurred for many species for a number of reasons, including commercial trade, pet trade as well as conservation attempts. Whilst most examples of legal trade of wildlife are as a result of large population numbers or pests, there is potential for the use of legal trade to reduce illegal trade threatening many species. Legalizing the trade of species can allow for more regulated harvesting of animals and prevent illegal over-harvesting.
Many environmentalists, scientists, and zoologists around the world are against legalizing pet trade of invasive or introduced species, as their release into the wild, be it intentional or not, could compete with indigenous species, and lead to their endangerment.
Examples of successful wildlife trade
Australia
Crocodiles
Trade of crocodiles in Australia has been largely successful. Saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus) and freshwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus johnstoni) are listed under CITES Appendix II. Commercial harvesting of these crocodiles occurs in Northern Territory, Queensland and Western Australia, including harvesting from wild populations as well as approved captive breeding programs based on quotas set by the Australian government.[Leach G.J, Delaney, R; Fukuda, Y (2009) Management Program for the Saltwater Crocodile in the Northern Territory of Australia, 2009 - 2014. Northern Territory Department of Natural Resources, Environment, The Arts and Sport, Darwin]
Kangaroos
Kangaroos are currently legally harvested for commercial trade and export in Australia. There are a number of species included in the trade including:
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Red kangaroo ( Macropus rufus)
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Eastern grey kangaroo ( M. giganteus)
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Western grey kangaroo ( M.fuliginosus)
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Common wallaroo ( M. robustus)
Harvesting of kangaroos for legal trade does not occur in National Parks and is determined by quotas set by state government departments. Active kangaroo management has gained a commercial value in the trade of kangaroo meat, kangaroo leather and other products.[Pople, T; Grigg, G. 1999. Commercial harvesting of Kangaroos in Australia for Environment Australia August 1999.]
North America
Alligator
Alligators have been alligator meat commercially in Florida and other American states as part of a management program.[Dutton, H; Brunell, AA; Carbonneau, D; Hord, L; Stiegler, S; Visscher, C; White, J; Woodward, A, 2002. Florida's Alligator Management Program an Update 1987 to 2001 pp. 23–30 in: Crocodiles: Proceedings of the 16th Working Meeting of the Crocodile Specialist Group, IUCN- The World Conservation Union, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK.] The use of legal trade and quotas have allowed management of a species as well as economic incentive for sustaining habitat with greater ecological benefits.
Legalising trade for endangered species
Legalising the trade of products derived from endangered species is highly controversial.
Under the Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), species listed under Appendix I are threatened with extinction, and commercial trade in wild-caught specimens, or products derived from them, is prohibited.[CITES 2013. Fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties. CITES Secretariat, Geneva.] This rule applies to all species threatened with extinction, except in exceptional circumstances.[CITES, 2014. How Cites Works. Online Available: http://www.cites.org/eng/disc/how.php. Accessed 10 06 2014.] Commercial trade of endangered species listed under Appendix II and III is not prohibited, although Parties must provide non-detriment finding to show that the species in the wild is not being unsustainably harvested for the purpose of trade. Specimens of Appendix I species that were bred in captivity for commercial purposes are treated as Appendix II. An example of this is captive-bred saltwater crocodiles, with some wild populations listed in Appendix I and others in Appendix II.
Welfare of animals
Many animals are kept for months in markets waiting to be sold. The welfare of animals in trade is almost universally poor, with the vast majority of animals failing to receive even the most basic freedom from pain, hunger, distress, discomfort, and few opportunities to express normal behaviour.
See also
Further reading
External links
